John Paul Jones

Early life and training

John Paul, as he was then known, was born on the estate of Arbigland near Kirkbean in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright on the southwest coast of Scotland. His parents had married on November 29, 1733, in New Abbey, Kirkcudbrightshire. John Paul started his maritime career when he was 13, sailing out of Whitehaven in the northern English county of Cumberland as an apprentice aboard Friendship under Captain Benson. Paul's older brother William Paul had married and settled in Fredericksburg, Colony of Virginia. Virginia was the destination of many of the younger Paul's voyages.

For several years, Paul worked as a sailor, sailing aboard several merchant ships. In 1764, he became involved in the Atlantic slave trade, serving as third mate onboard the slave ship King George; two years later, he transferred to the crew of Two Friends, a 50-foot slave ship which operated out of Kingston, Jamaica, as first mate. After completing several voyages to West Africa, Paul left the slave trade, which he described as an "abominable trade", in 1768. While Two Friends was docked in Kingston, Paul booked passage on a ship to Scotland.

Paul's career was quickly and unexpectedly advanced during his next voyage aboard the brig John, which sailed from port in 1768, when both the captain and a ranking mate suddenly died of yellow fever. With the crew encouraging and voting him to it, Paul managed to navigate the ship back to a safe port, and in reward for this feat, the vessel's grateful Scottish owners made him master of the ship and its crew, giving him 10% of the cargo. He led two voyages to the West Indies before running into difficulty.

During his second voyage in 1770, Paul had one of his crew flogged after a failed mutiny over early payment of wages, leading to accusations that his discipline was "unnecessarily cruel". These claims were initially dismissed, but his favorable reputation was destroyed when the sailor died a few weeks later. Paul was arrested for his involvement in the man's death. He was imprisoned in Kirkcudbright Tolbooth but later released on bail. The negative effect of this episode on his reputation is indisputable. The local governor encouraged Paul to leave the area and change his name while on bail. The man who died of his injuries was not a usual sailor but an adventurer from a very influential Scottish family.

Leaving Scotland, Paul commanded a London-registered vessel named Betsy, a West Indiaman mounting 22 guns, engaging in commercial speculation in Tobago for about 18 months. This came to an end, however, when he killed a mutinous crew member with a sword in a dispute over wages. Years later, in a letter to Benjamin Franklin describing the incident, Paul claimed that the killing was committed in self-defense, but he was not willing to wait to be tried in an Admiral's Court, which would have taken months to assemble and where the family of his first victim had been influential.

Naval career

American colonies

In the summer of 1775, Jones met Joseph Hewes and other revolutionary leaders in Philadelphia. From that period, America became "the country of his fond election", as he afterwards expressed himself to Baron Joan Derk van der Capellen tot den Pol. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society. He volunteered his services to the newly founded Continental Navy; during this time, the Navy and Marines were being formally established, and suitable ship officers and captains were in great demand. Jones's potential would likely have gone unrecognized were it not for the endorsement of Richard Henry Lee, who knew of his abilities. With help from influential members of the Continental Congress, Jones was appointed as a first lieutenant of the newly converted 24-gun frigate USS Alfred on December 7, 1775.

Revolutionary War command

Jones sailed from the Delaware River in February 1776 aboard Alfred on the Continental Navy's maiden cruise. It was aboard this vessel that Jones took the honour of hoisting the first U.S. ensign, the Continental Union Flag, over a naval vessel. The fleet had been expected to cruise along the coast but was ordered instead by Commodore Esek Hopkins to sail for The Bahamas, where Nassau was raided for military supplies. The fleet had an unsuccessful encounter with a British packet ship on their return voyage. Jones was then assigned command of the sloop USS Providence. Congress had recently ordered the construction of 13 frigates for the Navy, one of which was to be commanded by Jones. In exchange for this prestigious command, Jones accepted his commission aboard the smaller Providence. Over the summer of 1776, Jones performed various services for the Continental Navy and Congress. These services included the transport of troops, the movement of supplies, and the escort of convoys. Jones assisted a brig from Hispaniola that was being chased by HMS Cerberus and laden with military stores. The brig was then purchased by Congress and commissioned as USS Hampden. During a later six-week voyage to Nova Scotia, Jones captured 16 prizes and inflicted significant damage in the Raid on Canso.

Jones's next command came as a result of Commodore Hopkins's orders to liberate hundreds of American prisoners forced to labour in coal mines in Nova Scotia, and also to raid British shipping. On November 1, 1776, Jones set sail in command of Alfred to carry out this mission. Winter conditions prevented freeing the prisoners, but the mission resulted in the capture of Mellish, a vessel carrying a vital supply of winter clothing intended for General John Burgoyne's troops in Canada.

Despite his successes at sea, Jones' disagreements with those in authority reached a new level upon arrival in Boston on December 16, 1776. While at port, he began feuding with Hopkins, as Jones believed that Hopkins was hindering his advancement by talking down his campaign plans. As a result of this and other frustrations, Jones was assigned the smaller command of the newly constructed USS Ranger on June 14, 1777.

After making the necessary preparations, Jones sailed for France on November 1 with orders to assist the American cause in any way possible. The American commissioners in France were Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, and they listened to Jones's strategic recommendations. They promised him the command of Indien, a vessel being constructed for America by the Netherlands in Amsterdam. Britain, however, was able to divert Indien away from American hands by exerting pressure to ensure its sale to France instead (which had not yet allied with America). Jones was again left without a command. It is thought that during this time, Jones developed his close friendship with Franklin, whom he greatly admired.

Russian service

In June 1782, Jones was appointed to command the 74-gun USS America, but his command fell through when Congress decided to give America to the French as a replacement for the wrecked Le Magnifique. As a result, he was given an assignment in Europe in 1783 to collect prize money due his former hands. At length, this too expired and Jones was left without prospects for active employment, leading him on April 23, 1787, to enter into the service of the Empress Catherine II of Russia, who placed great confidence in Jones, saying: "He will get to Constantinople". He was granted the name as a French subject Павел де Жонес (Pavel de Zhones, Paul de Jones).

As a rear admiral aboard the 24-gun flagship Vladimir, he took part in the naval campaign in the Dnieper-Bug Liman, an arm of the Black Sea, into which the Southern Bug and Dnieper rivers flow, against the Turks, in concert with the Dnieper Flotilla commanded by Prince Charles of Nassau-Siegen. Jones faced a considerably larger Turkish fleet, commanded by Hassan el Ghazi, comprising over 100 vessels, including 18 ships of the line and 40 frigates. Jones' ships were poorly built, manned by impressed serfs, and were not fully armed. Additionally, he had to communicate with his fleet through a translator.

At the Siege of Ochakov (1788), he wanted to use a defensive strategy and bickered with Nassau-Siegen, who wanted to rush in and attack. Jones wanted to use a V shape with his fleet, placing it at the mouth of the Bug River to funnel the Turkish navy down the river into a killing field created by deadly crossfire, but the wind was against him. Still, he had his fleet create this formation by throwing their anchors out and dragging themselves into place. The strategy worked, and the larger Turkish navy was defeated. During the battle, Nassau-Siegen's flagship fled the battle to a safe position. But when the battle was won and the enemy flagship was trapped, grounded on a sandbar, Jones ordered his crew to approach and capture the flagship. Instead, his Russian captain pulled up short, anchored himself, and let Nassau-Siegen claim the prize. Admiral Jones own report to the overall Russian commander, Prince Grigory Potemkin, was courteous of Nassau-Siegen and described the following:

"At eight o’clock, when the Prince of Nassau and I were in a Cutter, looking over our position and reconnoitering a little closer to our enemy, their Flotilla began to fire on us very vigorously. At the same time the first division of their Flotilla advanced along Shore and attacked our reserve, stationed between our ships and the Coast. We took their fire for some time without response, but, seeing the engagement was growing serious, I did my best to help the Prince make the necessary manoeuvres. Then I hurried along the line to bring up all the Batteries and other boats of the Flotilla. . . .The Turks, on their part, had brought up the second division of their Flotilla, and 1 hoped for some time that this would be a decisive battle; but the arrival of our Second division on the Battle-line put the Turks to rout and, with the wind against Us, we pursued them as far as their Squadron. . . . The Prince showed great coolness and intelligence . . . Mr. Alexiano came in another Cutter and helped us preserve good Order. ... I was greatly pleased by the conduct of the officers; they were brave and orderly; and I do not think the Captain Pasha [Hassan el Ghazi], who commanded in person, will eat his dinner with pleasure".

Later life

In May 1790, Jones arrived in Paris. He retained his position as Russian rear admiral, with a corresponding pension which allowed him to remain in retirement, but he was no longer able to find a foothold in Paris society. Thomas Carlyle writes of him, "Poor Paul! Hunger and dispiritment track thy sinking footsteps". During this time he made several attempts to re-enter the service in the Russian Navy. However, Catherine did not respond to his letters, explaining to their go-between Baron von Grimm that Jones' service record was not exceptional, and that as a result of the rape suit against Jones, Russian seamen refused to serve under him. Catherine also used her influence to block attempts by Jones to join the Danish and Swedish navies.

By this time, his memoirs had been published in Edinburgh. Inspired by them, James Fenimore Cooper and Alexandre Dumas later wrote their own adventure novels: Cooper's 1824 novel The Pilot contains fictionalized accounts of Jones's maritime activities, and Dumas' Captain Paul is a follow-up novel to The Pilot, published in 1846. During this period, he wrote his Narrative of the Campaign of the Liman.

In his addendum to the Encyclopedia of American Biography entry on Jones, Walter R. Herrick—citing S. E. Morison's, John Paul Jones: A Sailor's Biography (1959)—concludes "In sum, Jones was a sailor of indomitable courage, of strong will, and of great ability in his chosen career. On the other side of the coin, it must be admitted that he was also a hypocrite, a brawler, a rake, and a professional and social climber. Although these elements of his character do not detract from his feats at sea, they do, perhaps, cast in doubt his eligibility for a prominent place in the ranks of America's immortals."

Death

In June 1792, Jones was appointed U.S. Consul to treat with the dey of Algiers for the release of American captives. Before Jones was able to fulfill his appointment, he was found dead lying face-down on his bed in his third-floor Paris apartment, No. 19 Rue de Tournon, in the 6th arrondissement, on July 18, 1792. According to one account, he was attended to by Samuel Blackden, unofficial envoy and long-time confidant to U.S. leaders. Jones was 45 years old. The cause of death was interstitial nephritis. He was buried in Paris at the Saint-Louis Cemetery, which belonged to the French royal family. In their obituaries, the American press had partially forgotten his achievements, and some describe him as a French war hero.

Upon his death, Jones was owed significant money and land by others. He was never directly paid for his service on the Bonhomme Richard and had instead been forced to purloin part of the sum paid to the vessel's officers. Three of the seven ships he had captured were requisitioned by Denmark, which never reimbursed him; he was instead granted an annual pension by the Danish king, but it was never paid either. He was also owed nearly 13,000 acres (5,300 ha) of land in western Pennsylvania, purchased from William Trent in 1783. Jones' will left both claims to his niece Janette Taylor, who came to America in 1830 to pursue them. She seems to have been unsuccessful, and following her death in 1843, the claims were more aggressively pursued by her successor George Leckie Lowden. Lowden obtained restitution for the ships, but Congress ignored his petition for the land.

Jones's grave was either unmarked, or the marker was stolen at an unknown point. By the time Americans began searching for his coffin in 1899, the record of his burial plot had also been lost, burned by the Paris Commune during the semaine sanglante. Meanwhile, his personal papers had been transferred among several people and finally were displayed in the shop window of a New York bakery, where in 1824 a customer noticed them and purchased them. A New York newspaper describes the papers as documents belonging to "Franklin, Hancock, La Fayette and John Adams," failing to mention Jones.

Exhumation and reburial

In 1905, Jones' remains were identified by U.S. Ambassador to France General Horace Porter, who had searched for six years to track down the body using a poor 1851 copy of the missing burial record. After Jones's death, Frenchman Pierrot François Simmoneau donated over 460 francs to mummify the body. It had been preserved in alcohol and interred in a lead coffin "in the event that should the United States decide to claim his remains, they might more easily be identified." Porter knew what to look for in his search. With the aid of an old map of Paris, Porter's team, which included anthropologist Louis Capitan, identified the site of the former St. Louis Cemetery for Alien Protestants. Sounding probes were used to search for lead coffins, and five coffins were ultimately exhumed. The third, unearthed on April 7, 1905, was immediately recognized as Jones' by the excavators. A post-mortem examination by Doctors Capitan and Georges Papillault confirmed their impression, finding several points by which the corpse could be identified as Jones. The autopsy confirmed the original listing of the cause of death. The face was later compared to a bust by Jean-Antoine Houdon.

Jones's body was brought to the United States aboard the USS Brooklyn (CA-3), escorted by three other cruisers, one being the USS Tacoma (CL-20). On approaching the American coastline, seven United States Navy battleships joined the procession escorting Jones's body back to America. On April 24, 1906, Jones's coffin was installed in Bancroft Hall at the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, following a ceremony in Dahlgren Hall, presided by President Theodore Roosevelt who gave a speech paying tribute to Jones and holding him up as an example to the officers of the Navy. On January 26, 1913, the captain's remains were finally re-interred in a bronze and marble sarcophagus, designed by Sylvain Salières, at the Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis.

Posthumous pardon at Whitehaven

Jones was given an honorary pardon in 1999 by the port of Whitehaven for his raid on the town, in the presence of Lieutenant Steve Lyons representing the United States Naval Attaché to the UK, and Yuri Fokine the Russian Ambassador to the UK. The United States Navy was also awarded the Freedom of the Port of Whitehaven, the only time the honour has been granted in its 400-year history. The pardon and freedom were arranged by Gerard Richardson as part of the launch of the series of Maritime Festival. Richardson's of Whitehaven, a wine and coffee merchant in the town, is now the honorary consulate to the United States Navy for the Town and Port of Whitehaven. In May 2017, the US Navy consul was US Navy Rear Admiral (retired) Steve Morgan, and the deputy consul was Rob Romano.

In literature and the arts

James Fenimore Cooper wrote a historical novel The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea, published in 1823, featuring John Paul Jones as its main character. This novel was later reinterpreted by Alexandre Dumas in Captain Paul (Le Capitaine Paul), published in 1838. The film John Paul Jones (1959) includes a largely fictionalized portrayal of his private life. There is a 45-minute documentary about him, produced in 1995. In 1923, Franklin Delano Roosevelt wrote a screenplay about Jones and sent it to Paramount Pictures founder Adolph Zukor, who politely rejected it.

Johnny Horton wrote a sea shanty about John Paul Jones in 1960. The English folk band The Longest Johns made a song referring to him from the British perspective titled "John Paul Jones is a Pirate". Jones is a featured character in the American animated historical fiction television series Liberty's Kids. In the episode "Not Yet Begun to Fight", Jones (voiced by Liam Neeson) helps main character Sarah see that her true loyalty lies with America during the Battle of Flamborough Head. Jones' assault on Whitehaven and his capturing of the HMS Drake feature throughout Herman Melville's Israel Potter.